Gender in The Media Coursework
Taking Gender in The Media enabled me to incorporate my love of communication and gender studies, within the course we focused on not only how gender stereotypes impact women in society, but how the negative stereotypes of men are just as harmful. Throughout the course I was given the opportunity to think critically, converse with my peers about controversial issues, and touch upon current social and political issues that policymakers and community leaders are searching for answers for on the national stage right now. The following is an example of the written work that was completed within this course.
First Reading Response
First Reading Response
The world around us is
saturated with images that depict archaic stereotypes that tell men and women
what jobs they can do, sports they are allowed to enjoy, and the lifestyle they
can lead according to traditional gender stereotypes. Historically, women must
be delicate, polite, attractive, and weaker than men to appear feminine,
conversely men must give the illusion they have all the qualities women
supposedly lack; strength, ambition, aggression, and self-control. There is a
strong dichotomy that exists between the perception of men and women within
American culture today, there are countless double standards that are applied
to work, childrearing, and even romantic expectations for males and females.
For example, men are often praised for taking their children out to play at the
park with comments such as, “Oh what a great father you are!” However, when
women take time away from their careers to focus on spending time with their
families it is met with harsh criticism, as if a woman could not possibly
manage the exhausting task of working and parenting with as much finesse as her
stereotypically strong, aggressive, and self-controlled male counterpart. The
views towards women and men within society have created a dangerous climate in
which sexism and gender-role stereotyping begins early in the lives of boys and
girls. Everyday there are children sitting in classrooms across the country
hearing that boys can grow up to be firefighters, but telling girls the role of
teacher or secretary may be better suited for them. As President Obama wrote in
Glamour, “We need to break through these limitations. We need to keep changing
the attitude that raises our girls to be demure and our boys to be assertive,
that criticizes our daughters for speaking out and our sons for shedding a
tear. We need to keep changing the attitude that punishes women for their
sexuality and rewards men for theirs.”
Starting in childhood girls are bombarded
with messages in the media telling them that they are vulnerable, delicate, and
incapable of taking control of their own futures. I remember when I was in high
school and I regrettably became obsessed with the Twilight Saga, I spent days
wishing for my real-life Edward to come sweep me off my feet. Now as an adult I
see how co-dependent, possessive, and unhealthy the relationship between Edward
and Bella is written, but as an impressionable teenage girl it was romantic and
chivalrous to me. We need to create a variety of female images for young girls
and women to see within the media, “Imagine if we offered better media
representations for young girls that show them as being in charge of their own
destiny, not being rescued or saved” (Frechette, 2016). Indeed, imagine a world
where the percentage of females in the media represent the number of females in
the world, what type of world would we live in? I recall reading Sleeping Beauty to a little girl at work
one afternoon, she sat in my lap and said, “I want to read s story where the
princess saves the day.” I could only be honest with her in my response, I
said, “One day do you think you might write a story like that for children to
read?” She smiled, “YES!” was all she said. In a world where women have fought ferociously
for basic human rights, it is disappointing that society still fails to see the
inherent need for quality female representation within the media, and the value
it holds for men and women.
“In terms
of quantity, the media is still a long way from reflecting reality: women
represent 49 per cent of humanity while female characters make up only 32 per
cent of the main characters on TV, as shown by a broad survey done in 2008 by
Doctor Maya Götz of the International
Central Institute for Youth and Educational Television. [2] This study measured the representation
of male and female characters in nearly twenty thousand children’s programs in 24
different countries. The media industry justifies this disparity by arguing
that it is easier for girls than boys to identify with characters of the
opposite sex” (MediaSmarts). The media industry has made unsupported claims
that girls can relate to the opposite sex better than boys, children do not
conform to gender stereotypes unless they are reinforced by images they see in
their everyday lives, i.e. television shows, parents and caregivers, and the
messages they receive within the classroom. As a student teacher, I was able to
see young pre-school children assume various roles that society has strictly
gendered, young boys dressed up as the princesses from Frozen and the girls often chose to wear knight costumes, instead
of the stereotypical princess dresses. Producers
in the media industry have one main goal, to create entertainment that sells
across target markets. Therefore, it makes sense that the majority of the
content released to the general public is geared towards the male market,
considering we exist within the context of a larger patriarchal society.
In reality, we need a varied
representation of female roles within the media that goes farther than women as
caregivers or toys for men to objectify however they please. The continued
degradation of women within media, and lack of strong female characters in
television shows lays the foundation for boys to learn that women are the
lesser sex, not to be given more respect, time, or consideration than men. This
core belief of American society broke through the news headlines following the
Women’s March on Washington, and the protests that were sparked not only
nationally, but across the globe. As Donald Trump was taking his place as the
newly elected President of The United States, women across the world were
coming together to raise their voices in defiance against Trump’s unapologetic
misogynistic, sexist, hetero-normative, and racist that he spread throughout his campaign.
However, despite the Washington metro system reporting 275,000 rides the day
after inauguration by 11:00am (Dwyer, 2017), there were still significant
divides among the women attempting to unify in order to stand against dangerous
authoritarianism within our country. According to Carmen Perez, one of the
women’s march national organizers, “This march was initially put together by
white women, and a lot of women of color felt they weren’t part of the
conversation. We can’t continue to work in isolation. We can’t continue to be
one-dimensional. We have to make sure we look up, that we begin to really
coordinate our efforts” (Dwyer, 2017). Historically feminist movements have
been dominated by white women, as well-intentioned as many of them have been,
they have often forgotten the unique lived experiences of women of color
throughout history in America. Change must occur in waves, and as women learn
to communicate across economic, racial, academic, and political barriers we
will be better equipped to come together to fight for equality for all women.
Protestor Darcy Sawatzki talked to Brakkton Booker and said, “I’m not here out
of anger or fear, I’m out here for determination, for participation and hope
that together we can make a difference” (Dwyer, 2017).
The desire to make a difference and change
the societal norms that women have come to accept as commonplace is the heart
of this movement, and the open objectification of women by our current
President was the catalyst to mobilize women (and men) in America against hate
and violence towards women. The violence
toward women and girls that occurs daily can be subtle, or glaringly obvious.
When we think of violence towards women our minds generally create images of
domestic violence victims, rape survivors, or those who were killed by the
hands of an abuser. I
would consider the images depicting ideal beauty that are unrealistic, and
physically unattainable without the assistance of Photoshop is a form of
psychological violence towards women. Julia Bluhm saw that the alterations made
to images in fashion magazines geared towards girls were sending dangerous
messages about beauty, and she decided to start a petition that would force
Seventeen magazine to become more transparent about their imaging process. In
the end, the petition caused the magazine to create a pact stating that they
would no longer change the image of young girls, and they said they would share
pictures from their photoshoots on Tumblr to further the publication’s
transparency. Annette Okonofua signed the petition Ms. Bluhm created and said,
“I know that most of these girls on magazine covers are photoshopped,
airbrushed and edited, but yet when you’re looking at those photos physically
you can’t help but think, ‘Wow. I wish I looked like that’”(Haughney,
2012). I remember being a young girl and
idolizing Britney Spears, my Nana bought me her limited-edition Barbie doll and
I was thrilled. As much as I loved my Barbie doll, I remember looking at her
and wishing I had a tiny waste like that. The Bratz dolls that were popular in
the 90s were stick thin, in comparison the now popular Monster High dolls have
similar body structures. Whether it is in a magazine, movie, or simply the
physique of a doll, girls learn at a very young age they must strive to reach
absurd beauty standards. These constant messages are creating a culture where
girls are becoming body conscious younger, and younger.
The objectification and criticism of
women’s bodies supports the idea that men have the right to judge, critique,
and ultimately control what women do with their bodies and minds. What is more
dangerous than that? The fact that we now have a national leader who openly
supports the objectification and assault of women, Professor Michael Cornfield
of George Washington University stated, “Very few people in
public life , even today, get away with what Trump was able to get away with”
(Slodysko, 2017). The public rantings of President Trump on social media has
caused issues among lawmakers who have forgotten that as members of public
office, they have a responsibility to remain professional and respectful within
the public sphere. Senators are forgetting that Twitter and other social media
platforms are not the channels that should be used when communicating with constituents,
given the many lude and disrespectful posts by many senators following the
Women’s March some offices have decided it is necessary to hold workshops to
outline proper social media etiquette for public officials under this
administration (Slodysko, 2017). The reactions of male lawmakers to the
resistance and strength demonstrated by American women during the Women’s March
on Washington illustrates the lack of respect for women, and what they offer to
the nation as a collective group. The power, strength, and determination that
radiated across the world during the march was so threatening to male power,
that they had to find a way to minimize its significance on society.
It
is clear that male views of women have been adopted by media culture and forced
upon the youth of America, consequently causing young women and men to
internalize and accept unrealistic ideals surrounding the female body in
society. In her article The Face of
Post-Feminist Patriarchy, Susan Douglas explains the complex messages that
are being conveyed to young women through the show The Bachelor, and what we can do to begin to make
sense of them. The parallel she draws between the show and a 4-H livestock
competition, where women are the equivalent of cattle and a man has the ability
and power to choose the one he finds the most appealing. This article
highlights the absurd and unrealistic lens in which love, relationships, and
sexuality are viewed within our culture, “The notion that anyone would select the person they are
going to marry in six weeks of fantasy dates in hot tubs televised to millions
of people is creepy.” These shows support conventional views of gender roles
and stereotypes, they are blatantly binary in gender representation, fitting
masculinity and femininity into two distinct boxes, “Essentializing is reducing
something or someone to certain characteristics that are assumed to be central
to its nature and present in every member of its category” (Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood,
pg. 18). American women are expected to be slender, physically attractive, and
are often viewed as delicate or fragile, and when they do not meet these
expectations they are degraded, and criticized harshly. It is not only within
the context of reality television where these expectations of women exist, you
see throughout the history of animation in Disney films that female characters
are portrayed as seductive and alluring, often having larger eyes with longer
lashes that they bat coyly at the object of their affection. Public criticisms
of female celebrities and their bodies are observed by girls and women via
television, social media, and magazines every day. Professor MarAa Len-RAos
reported in her study at Wisconsin University, “Some participants said they
realize images of models are digitally enhanced, but it doesn’t keep them from
wanting to achieve these unattainable figures – this is because they see how
society rewards women for looking good” (RedOrbit.com, 2012).
I formerly mentioned a core belief of
American culture is that women are rewarded within the social context in which
they exist depending on their physical attractiveness, oddly enough women who
demonstrate other positive traits such as physical strength, determination, and
independence are minimized by popular culture. Why it is that women can be
attractive, but they cannot also be smart or physically powerful? When women
possess traits that traditionally are associated with masculinity
it unsettles men who have come to believe that a woman who shares similar
characteristics threatens their identity as masculine men. This issue has been
particularly evident within the sports industry and the armed forces, women
have been forced to fight for recognition within organizations that they are
already active in. Women have been blazing trails in male dominated sports for
decades, yet women’s sports continue to receive minimal media coverage. In
magazine spreads male athletes are shown playing their sport, and demonstrating
their physical strength and skill. On the other hand, female athletes tend to
be cast as sexy models, dressed in barely-there bathing suits and dresses. By
taking a strong and skilled athlete and dressing her up as a sex object, the
media is telling the world her talent is not worth as much as her sex appeal.
According to John Antil, “The way female athletes are being used as endorsers
negatively impacts their effectiveness and reduces wider opportunities for
other female athletes” (Tippett, 2012).
Female consumers want to see images of
women that they can identify with, and the majority of us do not find ourselves
feeling a close connection with thin fashion models. It would be more effective
for advertising companies to take advantage of the similarities that women can
draw between themselves and female athletes, perhaps they share the struggle of
juggling work and motherhood, which is more relatable than selling sex appeal.
It is sad that within the world of sports, women are still viewed as the lesser
competitors, and their athletic accomplishments are rarely showcased with the
same reverence as their male counterparts. Women have to maintain a perfect
image, they must appear to fit within the ideal stereotype of femininity in
order to be accepted within sports because if women are suspected of being gay
they can lose endorsement contracts. As what is acceptable behavior for men and
women shifts and changes, society must find a way to adjust to the new-found
gender norms that are beginning to take root within American culture. This can
be especially challenging in regards to relationship dynamics and available
career options for women that once were only offered to men. Following the lift
of the ban on women in combat, female veterans began voicing changes they hoped
to see as a result of women being recognized as active combat members within
the armed services. The lift of the combat exclusion ban would help women advance
further in their military careers, would be a catalyst for creating universal
job requirements for both men and women, this ban would help break the brass
ceiling blocking female military advancement (New York Times Video, 2013). The
combat ban being lifted had one outcome that was particularly monumental, it
would officially recognize the 280,000 women who had been deployed to Iraq and
Afghanistan as of 2012. Of the 280,000 women deployed, 800 women were wounded,
and 130 were killed in action (Bumiller & Shanker, 2013).
Despite the strides being made in the
military for female service members, there are still significant obstacles
women face if they decide to join the armed forces. The military has
experienced alarming rates of sexual assault occurring between male commanding
officers, and female recruits. Young women starting off their careers are told
they must follow all orders that are given to them, with these women being
isolated from their families with nowhere to turn, they are easy targets for
preying men looking to abuse their power. At Lackland Air Force Base in Texas,
Air Force leaders’ report that a combination of weak command structure and fear
among female personnel contributed to the widespread sexual assault of new
recruits. During the investigation of these assaults it was discovered that
personnel who have committed sexual
assault can be transferred
to other units, however there is no evidence of incriminating sexual behavior
that remains on their record (Risen, 2013). Jon Stewart pointed out the irony
that women needed to be given permission in order to continue serving in the
military in his video short Women’s War
Daily, and what this inability to acknowledge female roles within the
military comes back to binary gender conventions.
Nothing challenged conventional gender
ideals more than the women’s movements which have taken place over the course of
our nation’s history. The first wave of the women’s movement came out of the
need for women to have a political voice to use against slavery, however this
movement was primarily focused on white women due to the fact that Black men
were granted suffrage in 1874 (Fixmer- Oraiz & Wood, pg. 59).
After reading about the Women’s Movement,
I watched the film Iron Jawed Angels,
I was deeply humbled by Alice Paul’s determination, and the dedication to her
cause. Alice was able to understand that as a college-educated white woman her
interests were not the same as the factory workers, or the women of color who
wanted to be involved in the movement as well. She told female factory workers
that fighting for a vote who help them to gain safer working conditions, saying
to one woman, “A vote is a fire escape.” The movement began to gain momentum,
and the National Women’s Suffrage Association was unsettled by Alice’s grit and
strong-will, Alice had to fight to gain the support of other women because they
did not want to appear rowdy or distasteful. However, that is not what I found
most appealing about the film. I could relate to Alice’s desire to be alone, I
never wanted to involve myself with a man because I felt I would be emotionally
trapped, I wanted to go to school and that was that. When my boyfriend and I
started dating five years ago, I wouldn’t let him open doors for me, take off
my coat, or even pull out my chair at a restaurant.
I was used to taking care of myself, as Alice is in the film, and I didn’t want
to compromise my independence for emotion. However, I do believe her intentions
to have been nobler than mine.
I could not help but love and admire this
woman, which is why as I watched the scenes of her being force fed with a tube,
I wept. I wept harder than I ever have during a movie, perhaps it was because
what I read in my textbook was suddenly coming to life on my computer screen.
The images before me did not allow me to think in theoretical terms any longer,
I had to face that real women went through this agony and torture so I could
vote in elections, go to school, and open my own bank account. I feel like I
owe them my life, especially considering the political climate we are living in
right now closely mimics the archaic views represented in the film by the male
characters. The film illustrates the racial divide among suffragettes, which
was also mentioned by Gail Collins in her article The Feminine Mystique at 50, observing that fans and critics of
Betty Friedan had noticed her book did not mention the struggles of Black
women. The struggles women have faced throughout history have been immense, and
they are far from over. We must continue to strive to become inter-sectional in
our approaches at solving social and political problems, only then will we
truly make progress towards unity and equality.
References:
Bumiller, E., & Shanker, T. (2013,
January 23). Pentagon Is Set to Lift Combat Ban for Women.
Retrieved February 7, 2017, from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/us/pentagon-says-
It-is-lifting-ban-on-women-in-combat.html?pagewanted=all&%3B_r=0
Collins, G. (2013, January 26). ‘The
Feminine Mystique’ at 50. Retrieved February 14, 2017,
pagewanted=3&%3B_r=0
Douglas, S. J. / In These Times. (n.d.).
The Face of Post-Feminist Patriarchy. Retrieved January
31, 2017, from
http://www.alternet.org/story/14670/the_face_of_post-feminist_patriarchy
Dwyer, C. (2017, Januray 21). Women’s
March Floods Washington, Sparking Rallies
Worldwide. Retrieved January 24, 2017,
from http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-
way/2017/01/21/510932265/demonstrators-gather-early-to-kick-off-womens-march-
on-washington
Garnier, K. V. (Director). (2004). Iron Jawed Angels [Video File]. America:
HBO. Retrieved
February 17, 2017.
Gender Representation. (n.d.). Retrieved
January 24, 2017, from http:mediasmarts.ca/digital-
media-literacy/media-issues/gender-representation
Gurbuz, S. S. (2017, January 25). Sexist,
vulgar posts on women’s marches rebound on officials-
The Boston Globe. Retrieved January 26, 2017, from https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/
nation/2017/01/24/sexist-vulgar-posts-women-marches-rebound-officials/6MPXp917nnsT
YPImstOq3K/story.html?
Haughney, C. (2012, July 03). Seventeen
Magazine Vows to Show Girls ‘as They Really Are’
Retrieved January 24, 2017, from https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/
after-petition-drive-seventeen-commits-to-show-girls-as-they-really-are/?hp_r=0
Playing Unfair. (n.d). Retrieved February
7, 2017 from http://permalink.fliqz.com/aspx/permalin
k.aspx?at=27a5963a29594672b299e9f7b31ac98f&a=c51dc391 e9144f1b86310993
a7f6d
918
R. (2012, August 13). Appearance Matters
More Than Health For Most Young Adults. Retrieved
February 2, 2017, from http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1112674673/appearance-
Matters-more-then-health-for-most-young-adults
Risen, R. (2013, January 23). Air Force
Leaders Testify on Culture That Led to Sexual Assaults
of Recruits. Retrieved February 7, 2017, from https://nytimes.com/2013/01/24/us/air-force
-leaders-testify-on-culture-that-led-to-sexual-assaults-of-recruits.html?refer=
Star power squandered. (n.d.). Retrieved
February 7, 2017 from http://www1.udel.edu/udaily/
2013/jul/study-female-athletes-0703012.html
Times, T. N. (2013, January 24). Ban
Lifted on Women in Combat Roles. Retrieved February 7,
combat-roles.html
Wood, J. T., & Fixmer- Oraiz, N.
(2015). Gendered Lives: Communication, gender, & culture
(12th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning
Second Reading Response
Second Reading Response
When most people think of gender
stereotypes, what first comes to mind is the oppressive patriarchy holding
women back from making further progress towards economic, and political power
in American society. Girls are still expected to play house in school, while
boys are encouraged to pretend to be firefighters and policemen, demonstrating
the social views of women in America as passive, and existing only in the
domestic realm. However, these stereotypes also impact boys significantly, and
how they come to view, and treat women as they develop throughout their lives.
Media plays a key role in how men view
masculinity, particularly because mainstream media tends to perpetuate
traditional male stereotypes of aggression, strength, hyper sexuality, and
control. In the documentary Tough Guise, Jackson
Katz touches upon a crucial issue plaguing American men, though most boys and
men have both a traditionally masculine persona, as well as a softer “feminine”
side, they are often restricted to what version of themselves they can share
with those around them. As Katz observes, “You have to show the world only
certain parts of yourself that the dominant culture has defined as manly”
(Tough Guise, 1999). I remember when I saw Jackson Katz speak during a lecture
at Quinsigamond Community College while working on my Associates Degree, he was
screening Tough Guise, and had opened
with a brief introduction of his work in the field of male violence and
aggression. The topic brought me back to middle school, two guys had gotten
into a fight over a girl in the middle of the hallway, and it had gotten extremely
out of hand. I had no idea what to do, I couldn’t move because I was trapped by
the horde of onlookers chanting at the two boys. They both looked so absurd
fighting in that hallway; blood running down their faces, fists flying, shirts
torn. I couldn’t understand what could drive anyone to this level of violence
in middle school – especially over a girl.
Unfortunately, I was about to gain unlimited access to the male mind,
and learn how cultural expectations, and pervasive media messages have
contributed to the unacceptable rates of male violence occurring in our
country. Jackson Katz tells us in Tough
Guise that, “90 percent of people who commit violent physical assault are
men, 95 percent of serious domestic violence is perpetrated by men” (Tough
Guise, 1999).
We know that men commit the majority of
violent crimes towards; women, children, and other men (Tough Guise, 1999) so
how can we begin to critique, and understand various media forms that portray
men as violent, controlling, and power-hungry bullies? To begin with, the
acceptance and encouragement of aggression and violence in men must be realized
as an issue in mainstream media. The narratives that are shown in popular soap
operas, such as General Hospital,
where Sonny is always seen killing the character with whom he is in conflict,
to primetime television shows such as Scandal,
where the father of Olivia Pope killed President-elect Vargas because he wanted
his candidate to win. However, the image of male violence is loudest in the
sporting arena; hockey, football, basketball, and wrestling all have high
levels of aggression and violent conflict among players. How often do we see
players get into a fight on the field, or on the ice during a hockey match?
Though it is generally frowned upon, those altercations among players increase
viewer ratings, leading corporate sponsors and team owners to offer limited
consequences when violence occurs. In the case of pro-wrestling, it is a
combination of entertainment and sport, and within media is treated as such.
The embellishment of gender stereotypes within the WWF is extreme, and shows
what little respect the organization has for men of color, as well as its
sexist and objectifying views of women.
In regards to male violence, the WWF
presents a significant problem by normalizing violent bullying, “We can see
this process of normalization, humiliation, control, and verbal aggression
(toward men as well as women) is the way that “real men” prevail. Manhood is
equated explicitly with the ability to settle scores, defend one’s honor, and
win respect through force or conquest” (Jhally & Katz, 2000). These
portrayals of men as violent conquerors is concerning, particularly because
young boys are also consuming these images, “In the 2008 article Media and the Make-Believe Worlds of Boys
and Girls, Maya Gotz and Dafna Lemish note that girls generally pick and
choose what media content to integrate into their imaginary worlds…Boys, on the
other hand, tend to incorporate media content into their own imaginations
wholesale, “taking it, assimilating it, and then taking the story further”” (MediaSmarts.com).
In other words, young boys lack the ability to differentiate fact from fiction.
What young boys see in mainstream media will remain within their imagination,
and make its way into their everyday play, and inevitably their daily social
interactions as they continue to develop. The violent images boys see in the
media negatively impact their developing understanding of masculinity because,
“The portrayal and acceptance of men by the media as socially powerful and physically
violent serve to reinforce the assumptions about how men and boys should act in
society, how they should treat each other, as well as how they should treat
women and children” (MediaSmarts.com).
A prevailing stereotype that is still
strong upheld within our society is that men must always be in control, they
cannot show any emotions because that is a sign of weakness. It is rare to see
a man who is comfortable with crying, growing up I always heard men say
degrading things about guys who cried at funerals, or during sad movies. I
never understood that at all, I always wanted a partner who was emotionally open to me. I was lucky enough to
fall in love with a man who is sensitive and will talk about his feelings, and
I have even seen him cry a few times. I knew that his ability to show me that
vulnerable and raw side of him was a big step, and one that was scary for him.
I couldn’t imagine why anyone would think less of someone for sharing their
feelings with someone they love, if anything I think it brings you closer
together as a couple. Society sends messages constantly through visual media
forms, as well as verbal communication that tell men to bottle up their
emotions, because self-expression of any kind will leave them labelled as weak,
or gay. One of the main findings of the
1999 study done by the research group Children Now, which asked boys about
their perceptions of the male characters they saw in the media was, “It’s rare
to see men or boys crying or otherwise showing vulnerability”
(MediaSmarts.com). How are boys supposed to learn healthy forms of
self-expression, when they have a limited amount of role models to choose from
in mainstream media? And even worse, how are boys going to find the confidence
to share their feelings with their peers, and eventual significant others, when
the dominant culture continuously undermines their efforts?
Currently there are multiple men’s
movements that haven taken root within American society working to address the
dangerous heteronormative stereotypes of masculinity that are forced onto men,
beginning in early childhood. Profeminist men’s groups such as NOMAS (National
Organization for Men Against Sexism) hold workshops that enable men to
understand how gender stereotypes have impacted their emotional and
psychological development within society’s social context. Another function of
NOMAS workshops is to act as a safe space where men can begin to express their
emotions and personal needs, without fear of judgement (Fixmer-Oraiz &
Wood, pg. 82). I have talked to many men in my family who want to feel
comfortable sharing their feelings openly, however
they have been conditioned to view that as a sign of femininity, a weak
character trait for a “real man” to exhibit. The men I have talked to would
like to see a culture that accepts males who choose to share their emotions
publicly, however they don’t believe that this is something they will see occur
in their lifetime. Taking anecdotal observations such as these into
consideration, the need for a strong collective male profeminist voice is more
important than ever as definitive gender roles begin to shift. The main goal of
male feminist groups is, “Endorsing the liberal belief that men and women are
alike in most ways, male feminists want to develop the emotional capacities
that society approves in women but discourages in men” (Fixmer-Oraiz &
Wood, pg. 81).
When Arnold Schwarzenegger used the term
“girlie men” to demean his political opposition in an effort to get other
California legislators to back his proposed budget plan, he sparked public
anger and disgust. California legislators, along with many of Schwarzenegger’s
constituents asked that he issue an apology for the use of the slur, originally
coined to emasculate and invalidate gay men. Instead of an apology
acknowledging the insensitivity regarding his word choice, Schwarzenegger chose
to make a statement through a spokesperson stating that the offensive comment
was, “an effective way to convey wimpiness” (Grossman & McClain, 2004).
Within the context of politics, attributes associated with femininity are
considered weaknesses, rather than assets. This is especially problematic for
women who are attempting to break into politics, it also negatively impacts male
politicians who do not conform to the traditionally accepted heteronormative
masculine ideals that are so pervasive in our culture. “A “girlie man” in this
view, lacks “guts” because he is beholden to special interests. His “girlieness” is a kind of “wimpiness” – a
lack of guts, a lack of strength, and an inability to speak with an independent
mind, and get things accomplished” (Grossman & McClain, 2004).
Schwarzenegger’s use of the term “girlie men” is telling of a time in American
history when the gay community had a limited voice in America, even though
television shows with strong openly gay characters were becoming more popular
in the 1990s, there was still significant stigma surrounding the LGBT community.
Given Arnold Schwarzenegger’s political leanings, it is not surprising that he
would be insensitive to the feelings and needs of the gay community.
The gay community has fought ferociously
to be acknowledged by the American government, and accepted by American culture
which conforms to the traditional ideal of the nuclear family. I recently
watched the three day television program on ABC, When We Rise, which chronicled the lives of the activists and
politicians who fought for gay rights during the AIDS outbreak. The program
began by showing interviews of the actual people who were being portrayed by
actors, they told the stories of their lives, and what it was like to live
through that level of fear and horror. I distinctly remember one scene when a
man came home to find his partner had died, naturally they weren’t married. As
a result, the family of the deceased man kicked his partner out of the home
they had shared together for 15 years, and he ended up on the street using
drugs and drinking. The fight for visibility, for meaningful representation,
and for eventual marriage equality was wrought with pain, suffering, and death
in many cases.
Thanks to the hard work the hard work of
so many activists, the gay community has a loud and strong voice within
American culture, “Queer people see their reflections on screen in a largely
positive light: stable, employed, charming, attractive, well-liked, and successful”
(MediaSmarts.com). During the time period between the 1960s and the 1980s, the
gay
liberationist movement was
gaining power, and attempting to change society’s views of the gay community
from negative stereotypes to accurate depictions of their lived experiences.
The type of media criticism that initially emerged from the gay liberationist
movement was minority model criticism which is, “particularly preoccupied not
with just visibility in the media, but with having the ‘right’ kind of
visibility” (MediaSmarts.com). For example, in the documentary Further Off the Straight and Narrow: New Gay
Visibility on Television 1998-2006, the commentators interviewed in the
film highlighted multiple negative representations of gayness that have been
seen within popular culture. One of the most negative depictions of the gay
experience is how the media portrays the process of coming out. The process of
coming out is overwhelming for many people, however the way it was portrayed on
Dawson’s Creek took the experience
and created a overdramatic depiction of an everyday event.
Another major issue that was touched upon,
and was mainly seen in the television show The
O.C. was that gayness was used as an aesthetic tool to further the
storyline, the writers would place a lesbian relationship as a short term tool
to ignite shake up the dynamics among the characters. It wasn’t until television
shows like Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Will and Grace that gay characters were
used as protagonists within the plotline, and were given the chance to change
and develop over the course of the storyline. The creation of powerful gay
characters began to usher in a new age of gay acceptance within mainstream
media, and American society, which was a core goal of minority model media
criticism.
Though minority model media criticism was
important in creating meaningful images of gay individuals in movies and
television shows, its focus was too narrow, and did not include the broader
community of individuals who did not conform to the traditional relationship
constructs that have been accepted among our society. Minority model media criticism did
not focus on gender non-conforming individuals, transgender people, and did not
focus much attention on ethnic minorities identifying as gay, transgender, or
transsexual. “Under queer culture, notions of identity underwent a radical
shift, from being seen as fixed and stable to more fragmented and layered.
Thus, queer people were not merely “queer” – they could be queer males or
females or English or Italian or White or Asian or Black, or factory workers,
business people or bus drivers, and so on. Rather than looking at how
homosexuality was marginalized, the criticism that came out of this – social
constructivism – focused on how various social and cultural institutions
(including the media) shape the realm of sexual possibilities”
(MediaSmarts,com).
The power of mass media communication is
immense, we receive messages daily from various media outlets that utilize both
verbal and nonverbal communication. However, how does nonverbal communication
which, “includes all elements of communication other than words themselves.
Nonverbal communication is not limited to gestures and movement, but also
includes inflection, volume, physical appearance, and environmental factors,
and artifacts such as children’s toys” (Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, pg. 123). How
do we decipher the messages that we receive from images, or the things we see
for sale when we go shopping at Macy’s or other major department stores?
Clothes are inarguably cultural artifacts, and the variation in design between
men and women’s clothes should set off alarms to any woman looking to buy a
decent outfit, that is comfortable, functional and reasonably priced.
“Men’s clothes generally are not as
colorful or bright as women’s, and they are designed to be more functional.
Pockets in jackets and trousers allow men to carry wallets, change, keys,
cells,
and miscellany. The
relatively loose fit of men’s clothes and the design of men’s shoes enable them
to move quickly and with assurance” (Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, pg. 127). Personally,
I like men’s clothes, in fact I steal my boyfriend’s clothing all the time. My
favorite piece of clothing that I have proudly acquisitioned from him is a pair
of flannel pajama pants. I had to wear them home one thanksgiving because I had
made spilled boiled carrots on my lap, and he brought them to the church dinner
we were hosting with my Mom so I had dry pants. They were so loose and
comfortable, I decided I wanted to keep them, and he told me I could. I was
thrilled, I had never noticed the difference between men’s pajamas and women’s
pajamas before. I have always noticed the price differences between men and
women’s shirts, packs of underwear, and how women’s jeans almost never serve a
functional purpose. I remember telling my Mom, “These are so cozy, I think it’s
because there’s room for a penis in there.” Laughing at me, she said, “Well if
anyone could find room for a penis in pants, it would be you.” Humor aside, I
really was amazed at the level of comfort I felt. I could easily move around,
other pajama pants had restricted my range of motion which I found annoying.
The pajama bottoms also had pockets, which was a huge bonus. I didn’t even know
pajama pants were made with pockets, this was a surprise to me. As exciting as
this sleepwear epiphany was, it also was confusing to me. Is sexism truly that
pernicious that even our pajamas can’t have a universal level of comfort and
functionality? It is absurd, you would never think to compare pajamas between
men and women, and yet when I did I noticed significant differences. It is
comparable to the findings reported in Chapter 5, “A recent study published in
the Proceedings of the National Academy
of Social Sciences found that hurricanes with feminine names are more
deadly than those with masculine names. The findings showed that, because of gender
stereotypes that associate masculinity with greater risk and strength, people
were more likely to ignore warnings for hurricanes with feminine names”
(Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, pg. 102).
Gender stereotypes impact our decisions
consciously whether we are aware of it or not, men realize that when they
choose to hold back their emotions it is to conform to traditional gender
norms. However, the majority of the population will never know the impact
gender stereotyping has on how they react to severe storm warnings, which can
be deadly if ignored. The most common expectation connected to gender
stereotypes comes into play when heterosexual couples decide to get married,
more often than not the male assumes that his soon-to-be wife will take his last
name as her own. However, in instances where women choose to keep their given
name men initially feel emasculated and disrespected, as if their significant
other is snubbing them in some way. “A majority of women take their husband’s
names upon marrying, but there are alternatives to the traditional ways of
naming ourselves. Some heterosexual women choose to retain their birth names
when they marry. A number of men and women adopt hyphenated names, such as
Johnston-Smith, to symbolize the family heritage of both partners”
(Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, pg. 105).
I have grappled with what I would do when
I got married in regards to my last name since I was a teenager, it always
seemed like such an elusive idea to me. I always wanted to get married, but it
was never my ultimate goal, and quite frankly I was so sick as a child I never
believed I would be alive at my age to even fall in love. Regardless, as a
child I always struggled with my parents having different last names, because I
only was given my Dad’s last name. It always confused me a little bit that they
had different last names, but I only had one of their last names.
It was as if we
didn’t match in some way, and it didn’t help that people always assumed I had
the same last name as my Mom when sending us cards in the mail. I knew I wanted
to have the same last name as my husband, because I wanted my children to be
able to share the same last name(s) as their parents. Now that I am planning on
getting married within the next three or four years, I still have the same
intentions, but my reasoning has shifted. I want to hyphenate our names to
honor both of us as people, if a marriage is going to be a 50/50 relationship,
I think each of us should be equally represented within our last name, since it
will be how we present ourselves as a couple to the rest of the world. I also
would be hesitant to take only his last name because I do not want to be
another “Mrs. Laprade”, his brother’s wife will have that title, and his Mom
already holds it. I want something different for us. I imagine the combination
of our names as a symbol of new beginnings, in my mind it will be the
foundation that we use to build new traditions and memories on.
Although I am aware that, “Each of us has
society’s values in our heads, so we tend to reflect on ourselves from
society’s perspective” (Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, pg. 108), I want to consciously
fight against the ideals pushed upon me by friends, advertisers, and other
women. I walked into the bank one day and a teller I had gotten to know
commented on my haircut, and then said, “So does your boyfriend like it?” I am
a strong woman, I do not need approval to cut my hair from my male counterpart.
Conversely, he doesn’t need my permission to change his appearance. I do not
need to have the commercialism of love shoved down my throat at every turn, I
want to marry the man I love without being asked which China pattern I want, or
what I plan to do with my hair. People ask me constantly when I am getting
married, even though I talk more about my academics than my relationship. I am
frustrated that as a woman who prides herself in her intellectual
abilities, I cannot seem to gain acknowledgement for anything beyond my ability
to secure a husband, and make babies. We need to make it possible for women to
be viewed as strong,
powerful, intellectual, and capable human beings who do not need the assistance
of a man to become successful in the world. As much as I look forward to the
day my boyfriend and I can live together and later marry, I want to be valued
first as an individual - not as a prospective wife and mother.
Women face significant challenges in
reaching leadership positions, whether it is obtaining high political office,
or rising through the ranks to become a business CEO, “In America, only 17
percent of American Fortune 500 board seats are held by women, a mere 3 percent
of board chairs are women, and women are barely represented in President
Obama’s senate” (Kristof, 2013). In her book Lean In, Sheryl Sandberg comments on internal factors that hold
women back from achieving success in the world (Kristof, 2013). Sandberg argues
that though there are numerous external factors that stand in the way of women
achieving success in the workforce, there are a number of internalized messages
which have caused women to believe they deserve less than their male
counterparts. “A study of Carnegie Mellon M.B.A graduates in 2003 found that 57
percent of men, but only 7 percent of women, tried to negotiate a higher
initial salary” (Kristof, 2013).. It will become easier for women to assert
themselves within the professional realm when the instuitional sexism that bars
women from leadership roles is dismantled, “We need more women in leadership
positions…considerable evidence suggests that more diverse groups make better
decisions. Corporations should promote women not just out of fairness, but also
because it helps them perform better” (Kristof, 2013). Despite research showing
that women make positive
contributions to the workplace, they are still underpaid, and underrepresented
in traditionally male dominated fields such as politics, business, and the
sciences.
“Women make 434,000 less than men on
average over the course of their careers, according to a fact sheet from the
Democratic Policy and Communications Center…Straight out of college, women make
on average $7,600 less than men, according to a fact sheet from the Congress’
joint economic committee” (Berman, 2013). This information is discouraging to
me as a young woman about to graduate college and begin her professional
career, it also troubles me as a future mother as well. Women often assume we
have attained complete equality with men because most of us go into work every
day, and have access to education, which is denied to women and girls across
the globe.
Modern day women are able to use ignorance
as a coping mechanism that allows them to exist and function within an
oppressive patriarchal society. I have noticed within myself that I have become
more critical of the people my significant other associates with as my study of
gender issues has progressed, I can barely tolerate to be around his brother’s
fiancé because she has no interest in politics, women’s rights, or public
issues. I have thought about this extensively, and I believe a part of me
envies her ability to remain ignorant to these issues. I have learned that
there truly is bliss in ignorance, and have had to allow myself to shut my
critical mind off in order to have fun with my friends and family. It is a
narrow line to walk, while I enjoy spending
time with my academic
friends who share my values, it can be draining because you are always talking
about social issues. As much as I want to be an advocate for those who do not
have the same privileges that I enjoy, especially because growing up with a
chronic illness I was denied many basic rights other children received without
question, I need to be able to take care of myself. I read a quote once that said, “It is ok if the only person
you save in the world is yourself.” That resonated with me, because I have felt
pressures by feminists, trans-activists, my friends, and society to do more. I
tried to do more, then I burnt out and had to accept that the best I can do is
help the children I work with at The Children’s Friend Learning Center. Most of
the children we service come from low-income homes, many come into school
without gloves, coats, or lunches. By holding fundraisers for coats, books, or
gloves for the center, I can help provide resources for these children that are
often overlooked by the wealthier members of our society.
When I read Dawn Bovasso’s article, I was
annoyed and frustrated with her complaints regarding her having to spend $200
dollars to go to an appreciation dinner, and talking about her childcare costs
of over $3000 a month. Her privilege was evident, and I felt very frustrated
with her complaints regarding her company’s expense reimbursement policies. I
have a friend who works for a major software company as the Director of Marketing,
his wife works at another company in Human Resources. Neither company pays for
their childcare when they need to travel for work, and I know for a fact they
would never ask to be reimbursed for such costs. I would compare Miss Bovasso’s
desire to have her babysitting expenses covered by her boss liken to asking a
couple who is getting married if they will pay for someone to watch your child
while you attend their wedding. Ms. Bovasso made a choice to become
artificially inseminated and raise a child on her own, if you lack family
supports that makes being a single parent much harder if you want to attend
social events.
“When I received my evite, I couldn’t just
check my calendar and accept or decline: I had to have an internal debate with
myself about the pros and cons of going and what this dinner would cost me” (Bovasso, 2016). This part made me laugh, how was this any
different from what every parent, in fact any individual has to do when they
want to spend a fancy night out. I have to consider this when I go out with my
friends; how much will dinner be, will someone be home to walk the dog, how
will this affect my academics, and so on. I don’t see her concerns to be unique
to mothers, because all parents I know struggle with the same issues. Every
parent has to find a way to balance their work and home lives, truthfully if it
were me I would have just stayed home. Her absence could be used as a platform
which illustrates the need for company provided childcare at employee
event. When the challenges of securing
quality childcare keeps employees from attending work events it can affect the
social dynamic amongst employees, therefore impacting productivity. Employer
provided childcare would ensure all employees are be able to attend the event
without worrying about who will watch their children. I disagreed with many of
Dawn Bovasso’s points throughout her article, however I do strongly agree that
company’s need to understand the challenges that parenthood presents to their
employees, employers must find ways to remedy how they contribute to this
issue.
A way that traditional workplace practices
will be changed is through the increase of women in political power, because as
the voices of women are heard then their perspectives will begin to turn into
legislation, which will be the catalyst for social change. New York Senator
Kirsten Gillibrand said, “It starts with a very core principle that women’s
voices matter. And if they’re not being heard in Washington, then the agenda we
are setting is not reflective of all Americans” (Chang, 2016).
In our country women are not given the
chance to make their voices heard, and have to resort to organized marches and
protests to assure that they are viewed as a powerful collective. This is
unfortunate, considering
that those who identify as female tend to feel a deeper sense of connectedness
to others due to their permeable ego boundaries. An ego boundary is, “the point
at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins” (Fixmer-Oraiz
& Wood, pg. 147). Women traditionally have taken on caregiver roles, both
domestically and in the workplace for centuries. I once asked my Mom what made
her become a nurse and her response was, “I had been taking care of people my
whole life, I figured I might as well get paid for it.” The “permeable ego
boundaries associated with femininity may potentially explain why many girls
and women tend to experience others feelings as if they were their own. It may
also explain why some women become so involved in helping others that they
neglect their own needs. Finally, this may shed light on the tendency of many
women to feel responsible for others and for situations that they do not create
or control. When the lines between self and others are blurry, it’s hard to
make a clear distinction between your own responsibilities and needs and those
of others” (Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, pg. 147). As a woman who works with
children, I have struggled with taking my work home with me for years. I have
done everything possible to ease every heartbroken child I see come through the
doors of my center, and in the end I have had to accept that I can’t save them
all. Despite the practical knowledge that I am only one person, it doesn’t
change my desire to try and alter the way their parents talk to them, or change
their views on how to treat their children. It doesn’t stop me from putting
myself in situations that I cannot alter, regardless of my desire to. For me,
learning how to implement firm boundaries and create relationships where I
don’t have to act as a mother figure has been a life-long struggle. After
reading this chapter of Gendered Lives,
I now understand why it has been harder for me
than my male peers to compartmentalize information we receive from
the world, and those we are close to.
From a young age this tendency to care for
others is manipulated by society, young girls are encouraged to dream of
getting married and having children, and until recently that was all that was
expected of females in American society. The PBS three part documentary Makers: Women Who Make America, highlighted
the oppressive social norms that women had to work under, and continued to
highlight important milestones for women in the journey to attaining equal
rights and opportunities in the work force, home, and by the government. According
to Judy Blume, “We didn’t have a chance to grow up, you didn’t have a chance to
find out what you might have been able to do” (Makers: Women Who Make America –
Part 1). When Judy Blume finally decided she wanted to be a writer, she was
mocked by the other stay-at-home mothers in the cul-de-sac where she lived, “They
laughed at me and said what makes you think you can do this” (Makers: Women Who
Make America – Part 1). It is sad to think that women had been conditioned to
believe they were incapable of anything more substantial than doing laundry,
and that when one of them wanted to break out of the traditional role they
mocked her instead of showing support. As women began to fight against these
ideals, Betty Friedan came out with her ground-breaking book The Feminine Mystique, which creates a
national uproar amongst women and men. Women who have felt restless finally
feel they have someone in the public sphere they can relate to, while women who
are happy to stay home with their children feel jilted and angered by her
critique of women’s role in America. .
As women begin to gain visibility in
America, women in sport have to fight twice as hard to show they belong in an
arena that is dominated by male athletes. Billie Jean King was the first athlete to start a women’s tennis circuit, and by creating a space
for women to compete she drew the attention of vocal misogynist Bobby Riggs.
Riggs tried to get King to play him in a match, and repeatedly she refused his
offers, until he kept beating other female athletes in tennis tournaments.
Billie Jean King knew that in order to secure a place for women in sport she
needed to play Bobby, and she needed to win. Though Bobby Riggs went into his
match confident he would beat King, he lost the “Battle of The Sexes” as it was
known. This match was a monumental moment for women, illustrating that women
could demonstrate physical strength and stamina just as easily as men (Makers:
Women Who Make America – Part 2).
Although women were beginning to make
strides towards attaining equal rights as the Women’s Movement was gaining
momentum, there were still significant barriers holding them back, particularly
regarding healthcare and reproductive health. “For years a curtain of shame and
secrecy kept abortion laws from even being discussed, much less being changed”,
said narrator Meryl Streep, that was until one woman decided to share the story
of her need for a “therapeutic abortion” due to the extensive deformities
caused to her fetus by the ingestion of formaldehyde. After her story was
released in the papers anonymously, the scheduled therapeutic abortion was
cancelled. Stories like these show how feared the procedure was during a time
when America was more conservative, and it is terrifying to think that we are
again living in a political climate that wants to deny a woman the right to
choose what is best for her body. However, this chain of events opened a
national conversation that got things moving towards the eventual decision to
make abortion a legal right to all American women in the 1970s.
By the 1980s, “Women were no longer in the
streets, they were getting into college presidencies, university board rooms,
and corporate board rooms. There was Sally Ride the first female astronaut” (Makers: Women Who Make America – Part 3). Women
were moving into fields they were denied access to for years as fast as
possible, in 1984 Geraldine Ferraro accepted the nomination to run as Vice
President for The Democratic Party, women were gaining power in the world and
they wanted their voices to be heard. While positive changes were taking place,
there were still scary double standard that were inflicting emotional and
physical pain on women. At that time there were not words for sexual harassment
or domestic violence, it was accepted as something women were supposed to put
up with. More often than not, when these events were reported the woman was
blamed for her own assault, as if she had somehow instigated her attacker. This
changed when Tracey Thurman called the police to report that her husband was
being violent and abusive, he had a history of violence towards Tracey, yet it
took the police 25 minutes to respond. By the time police officers reach the
Thurman home, Tracey has been stabbed 13 times by her husband, he is not
arrested upon arrival and tried to kill Tracey with police present, who then
pull him off of her as he is attempting to strangle her (Makers: Women Who Make
America – Part 3). How this occurred I will never understand, regardless of
what sex someone is, isn’t the job of a police officer to serve and protect?
Furthermore, wouldn’t one assume that the traditional gender stereotype casting
women as damsels in need of rescue encourage these police officers to do more
to help her, when she so clearly was frightened?
Thankfully, Tracey survived and a law was
put into place to protect women from their abusive partners called The Thurman
Law. But that doesn’t mean these violent and negligent acts don’t occur every
day, women are still blamed for their own rapes when they go to trial, which is
why sexual assault is underreported across the board. Women do not feel safe
coming forward to male authority figures when it related to an intimate form of
violation, because they don’t believe they will help them. Women feel vulnerable in the
world, most of us turn our heads walking down the street to make sure we are not
being followed by a man. We have come a long way, there is no denying the
progress that women in America have made, or the privileges we have compared to
those in Africa or South America. However, we still have a long way to go
before we are truly viewed as a whole person, and not the sum of our
objectifiable parts.
References:
Berman,
J. (2013, May 10). Women Work ‘For Free’ 59 Days per Year, Thanks To the Gender
Pay Gap: Analysis. Huffington Post.
Retrieved March 7, 2017, from m.huffpost.com/us/
entry/2775267
Bovasso,
D. (2016, July 23). Your Company Expense Policies Are Hurting Women. Here’s
Why and How to Fix it. Fortune.
Retrieved March 9, 2017, from fortune.com/2016/07/23/
Expense-policies-hurt-women/
Chang,
A. (2014, May 6). From Humble Beginnings, A Powerhouse Fundraising Class
Emerges.
beginnings-a-powerhouse-fundraising-class-emerges
Children’s
Perceptions of Male Stereotypes. (n.d.). MediaSmarts. Retrieved February 21,
2017,
ons-male-stereotypes
F.
(2013, March 5). Makers: Women Who Make America (Part 1). Retrieved March 13,
2017,
F.
(2013, March 5). Makers: Women Who Make America (Part 2). Retrieved March 15,
2017,
F.
(2013, March 5). Makers: Women Who Make America (Part 3). Retrieved March 16,
2017
How the Media Define Masculinity.
(n.d.). MediaSmarts. Retrieved February 21, 2017, from
masculinity
Katz, J., & Jhally, S., (2000).
Manhood on The Mat: The Problem is Not That Pro Wrestling
Makes Boys Violent. The Real Lesson
of the Wildly Popular Pseudo-Sport that is More
pub_manhood
Kristof, N. (2013, January 26).
She’s (Rarely) the Boss. The New York Times. Retrieved March
The-boss.html?src=ISMR_AP_LO_MST_FB&reference=
s.ca/diversity-media/queer-representation/queer-representation-media
Sender, K. (Director). (n.d.).
Further Off The Straight and Narrow: Gay Visibility on Television
x/permalink.aspx?at=8dffd84a3c444e1e89fede1131a55be&a=c51dc391e9144f1b8631099
3a7f6d918
Wood, J.T., & Fixmer-Oraiz, N.
(2017). Gendered lives: communication, gender, & culture.
Australia: Cengage Learning
Comments
Post a Comment